Regular Physical Education Lessons Research Articles

Examining the Effects of Reproductive and Productive Teaching Styles Interventions on Primary Schoolchildren. What Implications for Physical Education Teachers?

Background. In recent years, the study of the teacher-student relationship in the teaching-learning processes in physical education has had great emphasis. Previous studies have shown that the use of the Spectrum of Teaching Styles can enhance intrinsic motivation, enjoyment, adherence to physical activity and physical activity levels in children and adolescents. Study purpose. The present study aims to assess if a physical education (PE) intervention based on the variations in teaching styles, with reference to productive ones, can also have positive effects on physical fitness. Materials and methods. The sample involved 4 primary school classes (n = 124 children, mean age = 8–10 years) recruited from the SBAM (Health, Wellness, Food Education and Movement at School) Project in Apulia, Southern Italy. The classes were randomly assigned to the Experimental Group (EG) and the Control Group (CG). The EG followed a 5-month experimental intervention based on the variation of teaching styles, while the CG performed regular PE lessons. Physical fitness was assessed with Standing Long Jump (SLJ), 1kg Medicine Ball Throw (MBT), and 20 m sprint (20 m)tests, while two validated questionnaires were used to evaluate physical self-perception (PSP) and enjoyment. A 2x2 (intervention group x time) ANOVA was carried out to assess significant difference and interaction effect pre (t0) and post (t1) intervention protocol. Results. Data analysis showed a significant improvement of physical fitness in both EG and CG, while PSP and enjoyment increased only in EG. Moreover, significant (p < .05) interaction effects were found for 20m sprint, PSP and Enjoyment with low effect size (η2 ~ .20). Conclusions. The results of the present study highlight the effectiveness of a PE intervention based on the variation of teaching styles in improving physical fitness, self-perception, and enjoyment. Moreover, the use of productive teaching styles significantly impacts self-perception and enjoyment that are important mediating factors for guaranteeing better adherence to physical activity.

No sex-specific effects of balance training on dynamic balance performance in healthy children.

Cross-sectional studies in children reported better balance performance for girls than for boys. Thus, balance trainability might be different between female and male children. The aim of the present study was to examine the effects of balance training (BT) on dynamic balance performance in girls compared to boys. Seventeen girls (age: 11.1 ± 0.7 years) and 22 boys (age: 11.1 ± 0.8 years) were assigned to either a BT-group or an active control (CON) group. BT was conducted over eight weeks (two sessions/week) while the CON-groups received their regular physical education lessons during the same period. Before and after treatment, dynamic balance performance was assessed by using the Lower Quarter Y-Balance (YBT-LQ) test. A series of three-way analyses of covariance (ANCOVA) were undertaken to test for within-between effects of Test [×2 (pretest vs. posttest)], Group [×2 (BT-group vs. CON-group)] and Sex [×2 (boys vs. girls)]. The three-way ANCOVA yielded a significant main effect of Test (p = 0.002-0.043, = 0.122-0.262) and of Group (all p < 0.001, = 0.330-0.651) but not of sex for all YBT-LQ reach directions and the composite score. Further, there were significant Test × Group interactions (all p < 0.001, = 0.330-0.651) in favor of both BT-groups but neither Test × Sex nor Test × Group × Sex interactions were detected. We conclude that BT is an effective treatment to improve dynamic balance performance in healthy children regardless of their sex. Consequently, girls and boys can be provided with the same BT regime to enhance their postural control.

Uticaj dodatnog telesnog kretanja - vežbanja na transformaciju motoričkih sposobnosti učenica mlađeg školskog uzrasta

Numerous research papers emphasise the problems of regular Physical Education lessons. The most common problem is insufficient influence on the development of motor abilities. The goal of the present research was to study possible statistically significant differences in the transformation of motor abilities of younger school-age female students in relation to regular and additional body movements and exercises. The research was conducted during the second term of 2021/2022 school year in the primary school "Jovan Jovanović Zmaj" in Svilajnac in the form of a pedagogical experiment of longitudinal character with parallel groups. The sample of 39 female students was divided into two special sub-samples - according to the criterion of the additional body movement-exercise: the experimental group with 19 female students who had two additional exercises during one week which lasted for 90 minutes apart from regular Physical Education lessons. The additional exercises were in the form of volleyball training. There was also the control group with 20 female students who did not have any additional exercises apart from regular Physical Education lessons. 6 standardised movement tasks were applied in the evaluation of students' motor abilities. Apart from the procedures of descriptive statistics, for the processing of data the t-test was applied both to the dependent and independent samples. On the basis of the obtained results and the observed differences, it can be stated that the effects of experimental treatment in the studied variables of motor abilities influenced the improvement of motor abilities in both groups from the initial to the final evaluation. All the improvements are greater in experimental group, so that statistically significant differences between the experimental and the control group in the final evaluation were observed in five out of six studied variables and they are in favor of the experimental group. The results indicate that the application of the additional body movement - exercises outsideregular Physical Education lessons is completely justified.

Effects of Different Balance Training Volumes on Children's Dynamic Balance.

Concerning balance training, the most effective design of several load dimensions (e. g., training frequency, volume) is unclear. Thus, we determined the effects of different balance training volumes on dynamic balance in healthy children. Three groups of 20 children (age: 11.0±0.7 years; 47% females) were randomly assigned to a balance training group using a low or a high training volume or an active control group that performed regular physical education lessons. All groups trained for 8 weeks (2 sessions/week), whereby balance training volume amounted to 4 min/session and 18–24 min/session for the low- and high-volume group, respectively. Pre- and post-training, balance performance was assessed using the Lower Quarter Y-Balance Test and the Timed-Up-and-Go Test. Fifty-five children completed the study and significant Test x Group interactions were detected for both outcome measures in favor of the two balance training groups. Additionally, improvements in the high-volume group were significantly larger for some measures (Y-balance test anterior reach distance: p <.001, d =.94; Timed-Up-and-Go time: p =.003, d =.81) compared to the low-volume group. The results indicate that balance training is effective to improve balance performance in healthy children and it seems that a 36–48 min/week compared to an 8 min/week training volume provides additional effects.

The Influence of Physical Education on Self-Efficacy in Overweight Schoolgirls: A 12-Week Training Program.

The purpose of this randomized controlled study was to investigate the impact of a 12-week physical education (PE) program on the self-efficacy of overweight schoolgirls. We randomly assigned 60 overweight schoolgirls (15–17 years) to either an experimental moderate to vigorous aerobic exercise (∼90 min, three times a week) group (n = 30) or a control group (CG) (n = 30) that received non-specific regular PE lessons with activities chosen by the curricular teacher mainly focused on team games and sports skills that aimed to achieve general psycho-physical wellness (∼90 min, three times a week). To assess the starting level of students and significant changes reached, at baseline and after training, a battery of standardized assessment motor tests and a psychometric scale (generalized self-efficacy scale, GES) were administered. At the end of the intervention, the experimental group reported a considerable decrease in body mass index (BMI) and a large improvement in self-efficacy (p < 0.001). No significant changes were found in the CG. The results suggested that the 12-week moderate to a vigorous aerobic exercise program is an effective weight loss intervention and a vehicle to promote a range of outcomes important to the qualitative growth of adolescents. In fact, it could provide a positive and significant impact on the self-efficacy of overweight schoolgirls.

Influence of an increased number of physical education lessons on the motor performance of adolescents-A non-interventional cohort study.

Increasing the amount of regular physical education lessons in school is currently discussed in many countries in order to increase physical activity in youth. The purpose of this study was to compare the motor performance of pupils from an observation group participating in a school trial of two additional physical education lessons (5 lessons of each 50 min/week) without a specific intervention program to a control group with a regular amount of three physical education lessons (3 lessons of each 50 min/week) as indicated by the standard Austrian school curriculum. In this cohort study motor performance of 140 adolescents (12.7±0.5 years) was assessed by means of the German Motor Performance Test 6–18 over a period of 1.5 years with measurement time points before (T1), after eight months (T2) and at the end of the observation period (T3). Two- and three-way mixed analysis of variance were used to detect time, group and interaction effects. Although the observation group demonstrated a higher total motor performance score at all time points (P = 0.005), the improvement over time in total motor performance (P < 0.001) was more pronounced in the control group. Girls and boys developed differently over time (time*gender interaction: P = 0.001), whereby group allocation did not affect this interaction (time*gender*group: P = 0.167). Anyway, girls of control group tend to benefit most of additional physical education lessons. Sports club members scored significantly higher in motor performance across the observation period (P = 0.018) irrespective of group allocation. These findings indicate that there could be a ceiling effect in what the pupils could achieve in terms of motor performance as the pupils of the observation group might have reached this point earlier than their counterparts in the control group. Nevertheless, sports club membership seems to reveal some benefits. Whether improving quality and specificity of the single physical lessons might be superior to merely adding additional ones needs to be confirmed in future studies.

THE EFFECT OF A GREEK TRADITIONAL DANCE PROGRAM ON THE MOTOR COMPETENCE OF CHILDREN WITH AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER

It is usual for individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) to demonstrate deficits in motor behavior. Participation in movement programs has been suggested to elicit improvements in their motor competence (MC) level. The aim of the present study was to examine the effect of a Greek traditional dance (GTD) program on the MC of 6-14-year-old children with ASD. The study design included eight participants (two girls, six boys), who were randomly allocated into two equal-sized groups, group A (its members participated only in the regular Physical Education lessons provided by their school) and group B (its members additionally followed an 8-week GTD program of two 40-min sessions per week). Children’s MC was assessed prior and immediately after the completion of the GTD program by the Bruininks- Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency (BOT-2 SF). Due to study’s small sample size and participants’ heterogenous ASD characteristics, the results will be interpreted as outcomes of multiple single case studies. Overall, it was observed that the MC of all participants was considerably poor; however, members of group B made greater improvements in both the total BOT-2 point score and most item raw scores compared to those of group A, with balance and body coordination skills presenting the greater improvements. Even though the results of this study stress the positive effect of GTD on the MC of children with ASD, future studies employing wider sample sizes and/or implementing longer programs are required to further confirm its merit. &#x0D; &#x0D; &lt;p&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt; Article visualizations:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src="/-counters-/edu_01/0874/a.php" alt="Hit counter" /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

Utilizing Incentivized Economic Experiments to Test for Social Skills Acquisition Through Physical Education: Study Protocol of the Movigen Project.

Besides cognitive skills, non-cognitive skills—social skills in particular—are crucial for outcomes in various domains of life. The present work describes the design of the Movigen project, an intervention study with children aged 10–13 years using enhanced physical education lessons to foster social skills in a playful way. Utilizing a novel methodological approach various incentivized economic experiments were applied to test for spillover effects of the intervention on social skills. At three points during the course of the study individuals participated in a series of incentivized economic experiments to elicit economic preferences and personality traits. Additional information about physical activity and free time activities, different psychometric scales, and family background were elicited with questionnaires. Furthermore, a subset of individuals was equipped with accelerometers for 7 days to validate the answers on physical activity in the questionnaire. The data set comprises a treatment group which received enhanced physical education lessons and a control group which received regular physical education lessons at school. The comparison of individuals' decision in the economic experiments between both groups allows to study the impact of our intervention on social skills.

Psychophysiological Benefits of Real-Time Heart Rate Feedback in Physical Education.

School physical education (PE) has the potential to contribute to public-health promotion and well-being, but oftentimes students' lack of motivation toward PE or physical activity in general, especially during adolescence, diminishes, or eradicates the positive effects associated with PE. Therefore, practical approaches are required that help teachers to increase or awake students intrinsic motivation toward PE, for which self-determination theory may provide the conceptual framework. In that regard, the purpose of the present study was to examine whether the use of real-time, heart rate feedback (as a method to support students' need for autonomy and competence) during regular PE lessons has the potential to increase students' autonomous motivation and physical effort. To achieve this, we had forty healthy adolescents between 16 and 17 years of age run for 30 min either with (experimental group, EG) or without (control group, CG) real-time, individualized heart rate feedback during a regular PE class and compared physical and perceived exertion as well as joy of running between the two groups. Participants were randomly assigned to the groups. Our data revealed that participants in the EG enjoyed running more than participants in the CG (joy of running was 3.20 in the EG vs. 2.63 in the CG, p = 0.03) despite a higher physical (163 to 178 in EG vs. 141 to 156 beats per minute in the CG, p < 0.001) and perceived exertion (rating of perceived exertion of 13.22 in the EG vs. 10.59 in the CG, p = 0.02). That means, running with real-time, individualized heart rate feedback apparently increased participants' motivation to run and to enjoy running at higher levels of exertion. In that regard, real-time, individualized activity feedback should be implemented in regular PE classes systematically and repeatedly to create a controllable and attainable situation that allows students to actively adjust their own behavior to achieve appealing and realistic goals.

The effect of plyometric training on performance levels of the shot put technique and its related motor abilities

Background and Study Aim: The aim of this research is to evaluate the effects of plyometric training on the shot put technique. It was oriented to improve the basics for the development of power related-indicators such as power (explosive force), acceleration speed, and strength endurance.&#x0D; Material and Methods. The study sample included 220 male students, aged 16 years ± 6 months from Fehmi Lladrovci High School, Glogoc municipality, Republic of Kosovo from the 2019/2020 academic year. The experimental group (110 male students) applied a 12-week program (see the training program paragraph). The control group (110 male students) continued only with their regular physical education lessons (2 times a week). To determine the differences between pre- and post-test values of the control and experimental groups ANOVA calculations were made. The development percentage in time (between pre-test and post-test) were calculated using the formula: Δ% = (x post-test – x pre-test) / pre-test *100.&#x0D; Results: Results of the study show that pre- and post-test average values (tests within subjects) of the shot put technique (p&lt;0.05) were statistically different according to measurement over time (interaction; p&lt;0.05), and in tests between the subjects (p&lt;0.05). The shot put technique (Δ%: 50.88) test of the experimental group (plyo-training) had higher developmental percentages compared to (Δ%: 1.69) the control group (p&lt;0.05). When analyzing the developmental percentage, it was observed that the performance of the shot put technique of the experimental group compared the control group 49.2% more developed. Furthermore, the impact of the plyometric training program in motor abilities related to the shot put technique also observed similar improvements in the impact of the shot put technique.&#x0D; Conclusion: In conclusion, the impact of the plyometric training program on motor abilities related to the shot put technique also observed similar results as the training program’s impact on the shot put technique. The applied plyometric training program benefits were not just in the shot put technique but also improved all motor abilities related to the shot put technique such as power, strength endurance, speed and acceleration. Therefore, the development of the shot put technique occurred by an increase in motor abilities related to the shot put technique as a result of the plyometric training program.

THE INFLUENCE OF INTEGRATION OF PHYSICAL AND MUSIC EDUCATION ON CLASS TEACHING STUDENTS MOTOR SKILLS DEVELOPMENT

The aim of this research was the integration of Physical and Musical activities to the development of motor skills of class teaching students. The sample of 64 survey participants consisted of primary school students, aged 9 and 10 (± 6 months) from Niš and divided into two groups - experimental and control group, 32 participants in each group. The participants from the experimental group participated in the additional Physical Education lessons which included coordination and speed exercises, that is, the integrated lessons, while the survey participants from the control group were included only in regular Physical Education lessons, and also in Music Education lessons. The following motor skills were examined: Speed, Agility, Flexing, Explosive strength, Repetitive strength and Segmental speed. The obtained results show that there is a statistically significant difference in 20 meter run with the elongated start (M20VS .000), 30 meter run with the elongated start (M30VS .000), figure-of-eight agility run test (MKOT .000), side steps (MKUS .000), standing forward bend (MDPK .000), split (MŠPA .000), standing long jump (MSDM .000), standing triple jump (MTRS .000), foot tapping (MTAN .005) and hand tapping (MTAP .001). Given the results obtained, the design of a special program that would include the integration of the content of these subject areas would contribute to the development of elementary physical and musical skills.

Effects of a Participatory School-Based Intervention on Students' Health-Related Knowledge and Understanding.

Introduction: The development of knowledge and understanding in relation to movement and health is a basic requirement to facilitate lifelong engagement in physical activity with its accompanying possible health benefits. To train teachers in applying adequate strategies, implementation studies have often shown little acceptance of traditional top-down approaches. Thus, the purpose of the Health.edu project was to develop, implement and evaluate effective and feasible measures addressing students' health-related knowledge and understanding (HKU) in physical education (PE) via a participatory approach.Materials and Methods: For evaluation, a controlled pre-post-test study with 233 students from eight different secondary schools in Germany was carried out. Four schools (with two PE teachers at each school) comprised the intervention group and they participated in a 1-year participatory planning process to conceptualize and implement evidence-based PE lessons addressing students' HKU. Control schools carried out their regular PE lessons. Evaluation followed a mixed-methods research design, assessing program implementation via written documentary technique as well as program effectiveness using a standardized questionnaire.Results: Results show a significant intervention effect on students' HKU with a medium effect size. However, due to the participatory process, there were considerable differences between the intervention schools that were involved. Student's HKU improved most in schools where program implementation corresponded to relevant principles of fostering HKU.Discussion: The present study purposefully dispensed with any structured intervention programs for PE teachers to follow. The results show the potential effects of this participatory approach to strengthen student's HKU. However, the participatory planning does not always work in the intended manner, emphasizing that numerous contextual factors influence the implementation process.

Effects of Balance Training on Balance Performance in Youth: Are There Age Differences?

ABSTRACT Purpose: In youth, cross-sectional studies reported age differences in balance performance that were in favor of adolescents. Thus, trainability of balance performance might be different in children compared to adolescents. The purpose of this study was therefore to compare the effects of balance training (BT) on balance performance between children and adolescents.Method: Thirty children (7.5 ± 0.5 years) and 42 adolescents (14.7 ± 0.5 years) participated in this study and were assigned to either a BT-group or a control (CON) group. In both age groups, BT was conducted over five weeks while the CON-groups received their regular physical education lessons. Pre- and posttests included the assessment of mobility, static steady-state, proactive, and reactive balance.Results: Significant Test × Group × Age interactions were found for static steady-state balance (i.e., CoP displacements during single leg stance) and mobility (i.e., 10-m gait velocity). For both measures, post hoc analysis revealed larger improvements (+16-37%, 0.001 ≤ p ≤ 0.033, 0.65 ≤ d ≤ 2.24) for children compared to adolescents. For proxies of proactive and reactive balance, we could not detect significant Test × Group × Age interactions.Conclusions: We conclude that trainability of static steady-state balance and mobility seems to be higher in children than in adolescents indicating larger adaptive reserves in children compared to adolescents. However, there were no age differences in adaptations to BT with respect to proactive and reactive balance.

Promotion of physical activity-related health competence in physical education: study protocol for the GEKOS cluster randomized controlled trial

BackgroundOne central goal of physical education in many countries is to empower students to be physically active throughout their lifespan. Physical activity-related health competence (PAHCO) encompasses physical, cognitive, and motivational elements associated with the individuals’ ability to be physically active in a health-enhancing way. To date, there is a lack of empirical evidence concerning effective programs and methods to promote PAHCO in physical education. The purpose of this study is to examine to what extent a health and physical fitness-related program that includes learning tasks integrating theoretical and practical elements promotes students’ PAHCO in physical education.Design/methodsThis study is a cluster randomized controlled trial that compares two physical education intervention programs on health and physical fitness (IG-run, IG-game play) with regular physical education lessons (CG-run, CG-game play) in secondary schools in Germany. Forty-eight physical education classes (ninth grade) were recruited and randomly allocated to the four study groups. The intervention programs include six physical education lessons on health and physical fitness and only differ in the type of physical activity that is executed (running and jumping vs. small-sided games). The students’ PAHCO is examined both pre- and post-intervention and after 8–12 weeks of follow-up. We also determine various process variables during the intervention period to analyze the intervention fidelity.DiscussionThe results of this study provide evidence on whether a combination of theoretical and practical elements in physical education can enhance students’ PAHCO. Beyond that, our process analyses will allow differentiated insights into the mechanism of how the intervention programs work.Trial registrationGerman Clinical Trials Register (DRKS), DRKS-ID: DRKS00016349. Retrospectively registered on 10 January 2019.

Universality and Uniqueness of Students' Situational Interest in Physical Education: A Comparative Study.

Situational interest (SI) has been conceptualized in physical education (PE) as a multidimensional construct including five dimensions: instant enjoyment, exploration intention, attention demand, novelty and challenge. Consistent with Ding, Sun and Chen (2013), who argued for the need ‘to develop cross-culture models to examine the universality of the motivation constructs’, the purpose of this study was to investigate the universality and uniqueness of students’ SI by comparing three French-speaking PE contexts. Participants were 1812 secondary school students from Belgium, France, and Switzerland. They responded to the French 15-item SI scale and the Total Interest scale (Roure, Pasco & Kermarrec, 2016) after practicing learning tasks in regular PE lessons. The relationships between the SI dimensions and total interest were compared between the three samples using correlation and regression analyses. A multivariate analysis of variance was also used to compare SI scores between the contexts. The results revealed that instant enjoyment and exploration intention were the two major motivating dimensions, highlighting the universality of students’ SI, whereas challenge and novelty revealed the uniqueness of this construct explored.

Exploring situational interest sources in the French physical education context

Based on the framework of interest, studies have shown that situational interest possesses strong motivation potential for students in physical education. Understanding how teachers can use situational interest in a classroom context is critical to motivate students. However, such investigations have been exclusively conducted in the United States and little is known about situational interest in other contexts. Grounded specifically in the French physical education curriculum, the purpose of this study was to investigate the relationships between the five situational interest sources (instant enjoyment, exploration intention, attention demand, challenge and novelty) and total interest, to demonstrate which sources could be related to total interest and to determine possible mediators’ effects among sources. Students ( n = 601; Mage = 14.37; range 11–18 years; SD = 1.96; 51.4% boys) from 25 classes in six secondary schools participated in the study. They responded to the French situational interest scale after practising learning tasks in regular physical education lessons. On the basis of multiple-regression and mediation analyses, a structural equation model was formed to map out the meaningfulness of the relationships among situational interest sources and the total interest. Our results showed that instant enjoyment and exploration intention have direct and positive effects on total interest. In addition, these sources mediated the effects from attention demand and challenge toward the total interest. These results indicated that an effective way to motivate students in physical education is to build motivational components into the course content, especially those which enhance situational interest.

Manipulative skill competency and health-related physical fitness in elementary school students

BackgroundImproving motor skill competency and enhancing health-related physical fitness are desired learning outcomes for school-aged children. Achieving motor skill competency and a healthy level of physical fitness lay a foundation for being a physically active person across a lifetime. The purpose of this study was to investigate relationships between levels of manipulative skill competency and physical fitness for elementary school boys and girls. MethodsIn this study, 565 fourth-grade students and their 9 physical education teachers were voluntary participants. The students were assessed in 4 basic specialized manipulative skills and 4 fitness components during regular physical education lessons. Data were analyzed with descriptive statistics, univariate analyses, and multiple R2 liner regression methods. ResultsBoys were more proficient at the manipulative skills than girls, while girls had significant higher percentages for meeting the healthy fitness zone for the fitness tests than boys. Four manipulative skills significantly predicted progressive aerobic cardiovascular endurance run (PACER), push-up, and trunk lifts tests at p < 0.05 level, but not curl-up test for both boys and girls. Boys and girls in the skill-competent group significantly outperformed their counterparts in the skill-incompetent group on PACER, push-up, and trunk lifts tests at p < 0.05 level, with an exception of curl-up test. ConclusionThe more competent in manipulative skills, the higher healthy level in cardiovascular endurance, upper-body muscular strength and endurance, and flexibility the students demonstrated. Demonstrating manipulative skill competence and maintaining a healthy level of physical fitness are 2 major desired learning outcomes for elementary school students to be able to achieve.

Effect of a Ball Skill Intervention on Children’s Ball Skills and Cognitive Functions

This study examined the effect of a 16-wk ball skill intervention on the ball skills, executive functioning (in terms of problem solving and cognitive flexibility), and in how far improved executive functioning leads to improved reading and mathematics performance of children with learning disorders. Ninety-one children with learning disorders (age 7-11 yr old) were recruited from six classes in a Dutch special-needs primary school. The six classes were assigned randomly either to the intervention or to the control group. The control group received the school's regular physical education lessons. In the intervention group, ball skills were practiced in relative static, simple settings as well as in more dynamic and cognitive demanding settings. Both groups received two 40-min lessons per week. Children's scores on the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (ball skills), Tower of London (problem solving), Trail Making Test (cognitive flexibility), Dutch Analysis of Individual Word Forms (reading), and the Dutch World in Numbers test (mathematics) at pretest, posttest, and retention test were used to examine intervention effects. The results showed that the intervention group significantly improved their ball skills, whereas the control group did not. No intervention effects were found on the cognitive parameters. However, within the intervention group, a positive relationship (r = 0.41, P = 0.007) was found between the change in ball skill performance and the change in problem solving: the larger children's improvement in ball skills, the larger their improvement in problem solving. The present ball skill intervention is an effective instrument to improve the ball skills of children with learning disorders. Further research is needed to examine the effect of the ball skill intervention on the cognitive parameters in this population.

Can Exergames Impart Health Messages? Game Play, Framing, and Drivers of Physical Activity Among Children

This study examines the effectiveness of incorporating exergaming into physical education lessons as a platform for imparting health education messages and influencing children's beliefs about and attitudes toward physical activity. The authors launched a 6-week intervention program using Nintendo Wii games coupled with protection motivation theory–based health messaging among 5th-grade school children in Singapore. Results indicated that when children who were exposed to threat-framed messages played Wii exergames during physical education lessons, they reported more positive physical activity attitude, self-efficacy, and perceived behavioral control than did those who underwent regular physical education lessons and were exposed to the same message. In addition, among children playing Wii, the threat and coping frames had similar effects on the degree of message influence on physical activity attitudes and beliefs. The implications for schools, parents, and health policy are discussed.

Physical Activity Levels During Physical Education Lessons And Their Contribution To Total Physical Activity

For a growing number of children, physical activity (PA) during physical education lessons (PE) provides the main opportunity for being physically active. Although PA levels during PE have been shown to be relatively low, we do not know the contribution of PA during PE to overall PA. PURPOSE: to assess different aspects of PA during regular PE lessons and to determine whether PE is effective at contributing to overall daily PA in primary school children. METHODS: Accelerometer measurements in 781/900 children (6 to 13 years old) over 4-7 days were done in of 59 randomly selected 1st and 5th grade classes. PA during PE with the amount of moderate-and-vigorous PA (MVPA; ≥2000 counts/min) during PE, total daily MVPA, and a comparison of days with and without PE was made by using a mixed linear regression model with sex, grade and overweight status (normal vs. overweight) as fixed factors and school class as random factor. RESULTS: Valid accelerometer data were available in 676 children (9.3 (SD 2.1) years old, 43% 1st grade, 51% females, 23% overweight). Children spent 32.8 (15.1) % of PE time in MVPA (16.7 min of a maximum of 49.9 min). There was a significant gender influence (B-coefficient 6.6 (95%-CI 5.0 to 8.2) in favour of the boys, whereas overweight and normal weight children did not differ. MVPA during PE accounted for 16.8 (8.5) % of total day MVPA. Irrespective of gender, grade and weight status, children were significantly more active (difference: 16.1 (29.0) minutes of MVPA; p≤0.001) on days with PE than on days without PE. CONCLUSION: Although PA levels during PE are low, PE has an important role in providing PA for children, especially for overweight children. Supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation (Grant PMPDB-114401) and Swiss Federal Office of Sports (Grant SWI05-013).